ࡱ>  Lbjbj .|xxDe33333GGG8|DGc?UkkkFFF]c_c_c_c_c_c_ceFhf_c3FFFFF_c33kktcFX3k3k]cF]cZq`k`n9V2G\6Icc0c\hxhlq`h3q`FFFFFFF_c_c4`FFFcFFFFhFFFFFFFFF : Title: Urban to Rural Gradients Exploring Trends in Organismal, Community and Ecosystem Ecology Author: Mary Ann Vinton, Department of Biology, Creighton University,  HYPERLINK "mailto:vinton@creighton.edu" vinton@creighton.edu Abstract: Urban ecology is quickly becoming a major subdiscipline in ecology and being included in the syllabi of most college-level ecology courses. I designed a field and laboratory exercise that can be easily modified for use in any area that has a gradient of human density, from urban to rural. In addition, I designed the exercise so it would 1) cover major organizational levels in ecology, from organisms to communities to ecosystems, 2) have an optimum blend of structure and open-endedness so that both academic content and the scientific process could be taught to students and 3) stimulate students to explore both the natural and human-based features in their geographical region. The exercise is firmly grounded in the ecological literature and emulates a typical scientific study in that first I focus on a review of the literature and suggest some possible urban-rural patterns and then concentrate on empirical studies that try to test the existence or mechanisms underlying the patterns. I use three specific papers that provide especially clear examples of urban-rural studies at the organismal (squirrel behavior), community (plant diversity) and ecosystem (soil organic matter dynamics) levels. Students use the literature to design their own projects and do a scientific presentation of their results at the end of the project. Learning Objectives: Learn how urban environments and ecological processes are expected to differ from rural ones Learn how to use the scientific literature to design a new project Learn how to complete an ecological research project, from the question stage all the way to the presentation stage Timeframe: The exercise requires a minimum of 2 successive lab periods, with out-of-lab work required to complete data collection, analysis and presentation. I stage this exercise toward the latter end of an ecology course since it includes all the major organizational levels from organisms to ecosystems. It is desirable (but not required) for students to have experience with some ecological techniques, methods and statistics from previous labs that they can apply to this topic of urban ecology. List of Materials: It is useful to have a range of standard ecology lab supplies and instruments (meter tapes, quadrat frames, paper bags, tape, permanent marking pens, plant guides, thermometers, anemometers, light meters, pH meters, etc.) for this lab, to allow students to pursue a variety of questions. In addition, students need geographical details and maps to plan their urban and rural study sites. Google maps and Google Earth provide a convenient way for students to visualize the intensity of urban development and the context of particular sites. Access to standard software (MS Excel and Powerpoint) is needed for data analysis and presentation. Finally, students will need transportation to the sites. For questions that relate closely to the three example studies, the following supplies and equipment are needed. Squirrel foraging Large containers for the sand. (We have used plastic bins as well as aluminum roaster pans) Sand (can use playground sand from a building or hardware store) Sunflower seeds or other food items chosen by students Permanent marking pens (Sharpies) Sieves (optional, but can help to separate seeds from sand) Butcher paper or newspaper to keep sand contained while sorting seeds Plant community analysis Local and regional plant ID guides, or access to web guides Meter tapes, quadrat frames or DBH tapes to sample vegetation Ecosystem processes Ziplock bags to sample soils Soil test kits, if desired Drying oven, to measure soil moisture Optional soil equipment for field: soil pH meter and soil thermometer Temperature loggers (such as Hobo or Lascar USB) Laboratory pH meter/titrator Mason jars, NaOH and BaCl solutions if using incubations and base traps to measure soil respiration (see techniques in Robertson et al. 1999) Procedure and General Instructions (for Instructor): Prior to Lab Session 1 Assign several review papers in order to introduce the topic or urban ecology. You may supplement this with a lecture, if your lab course has an accompanying lecture session. I have used the following two review papers. Collins et al. is particularly good as a general introduction whereas Shochat et al. works well to provide more depth on particular patterns and mechanisms. Collins, J.P., A. Kinzig, N.B. Grime, W.F. Fagan, D. Hope, J. Wu, and E. T. Borer. 2000. A new urban ecology. American Scientist 88: 416-425. Shochat, E., P.S. Warren, S.H. Faeth, N.E. McIntyre and D. Hope. 2006. From patterns to emerging processes in mechanistic urban ecology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 21: 186-191. In addition to these review papers, provide multiple copies of the three example studies. Instruct students to skim these papers and pay particular attention to approaches that they may wish to use in their own projects. Organismal Example (Squirrel Foraging Behavior) Bowers M.A. and B. Breland. 1996. Foraging of gray squirrels on an urban-rural gradient: use of the GUD to assess anthropogenic impact. Ecological Applications 6: 1135-1142. Community Example (Plant Diversity) Hope, D., C. Gries, W. Zhu, W.F. Fagan, C.L. Redman, N.B. Grimm, A.L. Nelson, C. Martin and A. Kinzig. 2003. Socioeconomics drive urban plant diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 100:8788-8792. Ecosystem Example (Soil C and N Cycling) McDonnell, M.J., S.T.A. Pickett, P. Groffman, P. Bohlen, R.V. Pouyat, W.C. Zipperer, R.W. Parmelee, M.M. Carreiro, and K. Medley. 1997. Ecosystem processes along an urban to rural gradient. Urban Ecosystems 1:21-36. (Also good and more recent: Lorenz, K. and R. Lal. 2009. Biogeochemical C and N cycles in urban soils. Environment International 35:1-8.) Lab Session 1 Provide a short overview of urban ecology and review some examples of studies or questions that would be relevant to the local area. Point out the equipment and supplies available. Divide students into working groups and make sure that each group has access to the review papers and the example studies listed above. Access to maps and Google Earth is also useful. Give students an hour or so to discuss a project and plan their approach. They could implement their project during this lab session or in subsequent days. Often students who are testing squirrel foraging can get their pans set up during this time, even if they put them out in the field later. Students pursuing community or ecosystem questions can make sure they check out the necessary equipment and make arrangements for when/where they will sample and how they will analyze samples back in the lab. Lab Session 2/3 Depending on time available and the course enrollment, a second lab session could be devoted to collecting the data and analyzing results while a third session can be used for group presentations. Alternatively, all these activities can be collapsed into one lab, if students have done the data collection and some analyses prior to lab two. In any case, the last step is presentation of the results. This could be either in poster or oral form. Ive used oral presentations, with the following rubric: Project Design and Implementation Was project well-designed and implemented (good site selection, adequate number of samples and sites, procedures carefully followed)? Was literature used to guide project design? Comments: 3 points possible SCORE __________________________ Data Collection, Analysis and Interpretation Data carefully collected in organized matter, Data thoroughly analyzed (means and SEs or chi-square, etc.) Data interpreted in a sensible and thorough manner; interpretations backed up by evidence Clear conclusion and bottom line Comments: 4 points possible SCORE __________________________ Project Presentation and Teamwork Was the entire presentation organized and easy to follow (NOTE: should have introduction, site and method information, results, interpretation and conclusion sections much like a scientific paper) Were the visual aids effective (i.e. large enough to be seen, graphs, diagrams and photos used to illustrate important points, presenter adequately explains each slide etc.)? Did the entire team work together on the project and the presentation? Comments: 3 points possible SCORE __________________________ Total Score (out of 10 possible) ___________________________ Additional Instructor Hints Squirrel foraging is a popular choice. With proper site and food selection, this approach can be easily modified to test a variety of questions about foraging behavior over a rural-urban gradient. I often have students who want to incorporate some question about junk food and the fact that urban populations might be more accustomed to this than are rural populations. In that case, I ask them to think a bit more about foraging costs and benefits, particularly when one is manipulating the energy content of the food. One caution here is that student can get so carried away with this fun experiment with squirrels that their question (to the extent they have a clear one) quickly becomes intractable or irrelevant to the topic of urban effects. Remind students to identify a clear question and be able to explain how it relates to urban ecology. Questions about the importance of predator escape in urban vs. rural sites can be easily tested by placing the food at different distances from refugia. Keep in mind that Bowers and Breland (1996), while generally showing a trend towards more predator avoidance (and higher GUDs) in rural vs. urban sites, had one urban site where squirrels were especially wary and had high GUDs probably because this one urban site happened to be a dog park! If students choose a plant community response, they must devise an easy and quick way to sample the community, perhaps by only focusing on general plant lifeforms rather than species. They must also think about a consistent way of sampling each site, perhaps by pacing out transects from the middle of the site and counting each plant that falls within a specified distance from the transect. I often have students want to test for some socioeconomic effect (after Hope et al. 2003) and I challenge them to have some sensitivity for the underlying social issues. In other words, they need to avoid baseless assumptions about wealthy vs. poor neighborhoods and focus on clear mechanisms and patterns of plant communities. I also point out that in some non-desert urban areas such as ours, the lower socioeconomic areas might have more plant diversity (in contrast to Hope et al 2003) due to the fact that wealthier households may be more likely than poorer ones to hire a nursery to produce a weed-free, well-groomed (but species poor) landscape. Ecosystem responses can be challenging. Ive had students get some nice results with measurements of soil variables (temperature, percent moisture, pH and carbon evolution/respiration) along urban-rural gradients. Temperature can be particularly interesting and easy-to-obtain data, especially if you deploy loggers (such as Hobo or Lascar USB) at multiple sites. Shochat et al. (2006) suggest that enhanced temperature in urban areas (the urban heat island effect) is a major driver of urban ecological responses. While the concept of heat island seems simple, in practice the phenomena can be hard to detect and dependent on sensor placement. Issues students should think about would be night vs. day temperatures and whether different urban environments (green space vs. concrete) would contribute differently to the urban heat island. Usually they must do more research on the urban heat island to understand its causes and expression. A recent paper that shows some ecological context for urban heat islands in different biome types is: Imhoff, M.L., P. Zhang, R.E. Wolfe and L. Bounoua. 2010. Remote sensing of the urban heat island effect across biomes in the continental USA. Remote Sensing of Environment 114: 504-513. Procedure and General Instructions (for Students): Step 1 (Prior to Lab 1): Read the following review papers on urban ecology. As you read, think about how the processes and patterns might relate to our own urban area and further, how you might test some of these ideas. Collins, J.P., A. Kinzig, N.B. Grime, W.F. Fagan, D. Hope, J. Wu, and E. T. Borer. 2000. A new urban ecology. American Scientist 88: 416-425. Shochat, E., P.S. Warren, S.H. Faeth, N.E. McIntyre and D. Hope. 2006. From patterns to emerging processes in mechanistic urban ecology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 21: 186-191. Step 2 (Prior to Lab 1): Skim the following papers, which represent good examples of urban ecology studies at various levels (organisms, communities and ecosystems). Pay particular attention to the paper or methods that might be closest to the project you plan to do for this assignment. You might find it necessary to consult some other published papers as well to help you understand your topic and plan your project. Bowers, M.A. and B. Breland. 1996. Foraging of gray squirrels on an urban-rural gradient: use of the GUD to assess anthropogenic impact. Ecological Applications 6: 1135-1142. Hope, D., C. Gries, W. Zhu, W.F. Fagan, C.L. Redman, N.B. Grimm, A.L. Nelson, C. Martin and A. Kinzig. 2003. Socioeconomics drive urban plant diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 100:8788-8792. McDonnell, M.J., S.T.A. Pickett, P. Groffman, P. Bohlen, R.V. Pouyat, W.C. Zipperer, R.W. Parmelee, M.M. Carreiro, and K. Medley. 1997. Ecosystem processes along an urban to rural gradient. Urban Ecosystems 1:21-36. Step 3 (During Lab 1): Meet with your partners and decide on a question youd like to pursue. You may choose something similar to the questions in the three example studies shown in step 2 or you may come up with something new. Youll also need to decide which sites to use. Youll need a minimum of two sites (that differ in degree of urbanness) but ideally, if you are studying how a process changes over a urban-rural gradient, youll need 3-5 sites. Find sites on Google Maps or Google Earth and make sure they are accessible to the public or that you have the owners permission to sample on them. Some examples of site types include urban greenspace (parks, lawns, etc.), suburban areas and nature parks outside of municipal boundaries. Keep in mind site context, for example the degree of connection between the site and the surround landscapes. Before you leave from this lab, you should: Have a clear question and an approach to test the question. Make sure youve discussed it with your instructor. Have started on the project by either setting up or checking out field equipment. Have a clear idea of what sites you will sample. Make sure sites are publically accessible. If possible, visit the sites prior to sampling. Step 4 (between Lab 1 and 2 and during Lab 2): Work with your partners to collect data at your sites. You may need to ask your instructor for access to lab equipment. When you have your data, organize it, enter it in a spreadsheet such as MS Excel and perform any necessary calculations (means, standard deviations, t-tests, etc.). Step 5 (During Lab 2): Prepare either a poster or oral presentation of your project. Use the grading rubric provided by your instructor as a guide for the elements you need to include. Literature Cited: Bowers, M.A. and B. Breland. 1996. Foraging of gray squirrels on an urban-rural gradient: use of the GUD to assess anthropogenic impact. Ecological Applications 6: 1135-1142. Collins, J.P., A. Kinzig, N.B. Grime, W.F. Fagan, D. Hope, J. Wu, and E. T. Borer. 2000. A new urban ecology. American Scientist 88: 416-425. Hope, D., C. Gries, W. Zhu, W.F. Fagan, C.L. Redman, N.B. Grimm, A.L. Nelson, C. Martin and A. Kinzig. 2003. Socioeconomics drive urban plant diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 100:8788-8792. Imhoff, M.L., P. Zhang, R.E. Wolfe and L. Bounoua. 2010. Remote sensing of the urban heat island effect across biomes in the continental USA. Remote Sensing of Environment 114: 504-513. Lorenz, K. and R. Lal. 2009. Biogeochemical C and N cycles in urban soils. Environment International 35:1-8. McDonnell, M.J., S.T.A. Pickett, P. Groffman, P. Bohlen, R.V. Pouyat, W.C. Zipperer, R.W. Parmelee, M.M. Carreiro, and K. Medley. 1997. Ecosystem processes along an urban to rural gradient. Urban Ecosystems 1:21-36. Robertson G.P., D. Wedin, P.M. Groffman, J.M. Blair, E.A. Holland, K.J. Nadelhoffer, and D. Harris. 1999. Soil carbon and nitrogen availability: nitrogen mineralization, nitrification, and soil respiration potentials. In: Robertson GP, Coleman DC, Bledsoe CS, Sollins P, Eds. Standard Soil methods for longterm ecological research. New York: Oxford University Press. p 258271. Shochat, E., P.S. Warren, S.H. Faeth, N.E. McIntyre and D. Hope. 2006. From patterns to emerging processes in mechanistic urban ecology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 21: 186-191.     Submission to EcoEd Digital Library Laboratory Activity  PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 2 dflnop2 A Q ⳤϙzmeUME=hDOJQJhpOJQJhoOJQJh hk5CJOJQJaJhkOJQJh7Gh&0JOJQJh&h&OJQJh&OJQJjh&OJQJUhkhkOJQJh hkCJOJQJaJh h ^MCJOJQJaJh25CJOJQJaJhkh ^MOJQJhW)OJQJh h ^M5CJOJQJaJh^>f5CJOJQJaJefp<=Rfgr^_`s12gd & Fgd  & FgdNGgd @gd=\IQ X , - . J #   + h {  & ;<=Ro fиȈȀumhEOJQJh h OJQJh OJQJhsb9OJQJh hNG5CJOJQJaJhNGOJQJhWgOJQJhIzOJQJhU?OJQJh(1OJQJhOJQJhp$OJQJhDOJQJhpOJQJhY-!OJQJhoOJQJhT OJQJ'fgrCE_`syRiJ02YZ[s}⺲ҚҒšzhZGOJQJh"@dOJQJhwOJQJh^OJQJhOJQJhw^1OJQJhVOJQJh8OJQJhU?OJQJhtOJQJhOTOJQJhcROJQJh OJQJh ht5CJOJQJaJhw5CJOJQJaJ0Z78RAijk^gdJ^gdZG & F gdZ & F gd}^^gd}^ & F gd}^gd=\I & F gd789HQAXbrvиааШ𠕊tithZh"@dOJQJhZhZGOJQJhZhEOJQJhZhJOJQJhZhZOJQJhZOJQJh\HxOJQJhEOJQJhJOJQJhtOJQJhU?OJQJh}^OJQJhwOJQJhZGOJQJhw^1OJQJh"@dOJQJhOJQJ(:;ijk9:|Ͽxj\jTIAITIThOJQJhShL7%OJQJhGaOJQJhGahGa5>*OJQJhGahkY5>*OJQJhz<OJQJhVOJQJhkYOJQJ"hLdhk$56CJOJQJaJ"hLdhkY56CJOJQJaJh56OJQJh ht5CJOJQJaJh}^hJOJQJhJOJQJhZhZOJQJhZhJOJQJhLdOJQJjk9:eEiBkD!!gdm^gdO&^gdGa & FgdGa^gdV & FgdGagdGagd=\IdeyDEhi2@BLSjkCڸڕڕڸҊҊsskchO&OJQJhOJQJhGahm6OJQJhVhmOJQJhwhmOJQJhShVOJQJhGahIz6OJQJhGahV6OJQJhGah86OJQJhGahV5>*OJQJhmOJQJhVOJQJhL7%hVOJQJhL7%OJQJhL7%hL7%OJQJ%  !! !4!@!C!!!!{"L#N#]#^#z##4$8$$$X%Z%zh`X`hGaOJQJhOJQJ"hLdh056CJOJQJaJ"hLdhN56CJOJQJaJhfEOJQJh0OJQJh)|OJQJhGah!WK>*OJQJh!WKOJQJhNOJQJhVOJQJ"hLdhL7%56CJOJQJaJhVhmOJQJhVhO&OJQJhO&OJQJhMxOJQJ"!M#N#^#_#$$[%~%&2&<&N&o&p&&& 'f''''' & F1$7$8$H$gdMgdM`gdM^gdfE & F1$7$8$H$gdMh`hgdgd=\IZ%[%~%2&;&p&&&& ' 'e'f''''''((#)$)[)\))))))** *!*"*#*$*޼tlahm56OJQJhL7%OJQJhGahLdCJOJQJaJhLdCJOJQJaJhMCJOJQJaJhGahMCJOJQJaJ"hGahM6CJOJQJ]aJ"hfEhM6CJOJQJ]aJhGOJQJhfEOJQJhfEhMOJQJhfEhM6>*OJQJ]hNOJQJ#'''(\)))))) *!*"*#*$*@*A*]/^/z3{3R8S8gd=\I`gdGa`gdM^gdfE & F1$7$8$H$gdMh`hgdgdM$*?*@*A*R*S*i******++,N,,,,,,,,,8--8.9.O.P.\.c... / //\/]/s//Ϳsh%jh5>*OJQJhOJQJh!fOJQJhmOJQJhjOJQJh3sOJQJh)|OJQJh%jh)|56OJQJh%jh)|5>*OJQJ"hLdhLd56CJOJQJaJh)|56CJOJQJaJ"hLdh)|56CJOJQJaJ(//000=1B111112G2u2233#3.373C3N3Y3y3z3{3333 44(4T4f4s44444444444e5k55555555556666)6617ꬤڬڬڬhuiOJQJhLdOJQJh)OJQJh%jh5>*OJQJhL7%OJQJhOJQJh| wOJQJh%jOJQJhmOJQJhOJQJh%jh56OJQJ=1777Q8S8T88888888h9i99999:::::::;˼}u}mbmVKhh=\IOJQJhThC65OJQJhL7%h4OJQJh4OJQJhOJQJhSh4OJQJhmch4OJQJhmch=\IOJQJhT5OJQJh45OJQJhh=\I5OJQJh1Rh1RCJOJQJaJh ht45CJOJQJaJh5CJOJQJaJhOJQJh7gUOJQJh2dOJQJS8T888h9i999::\<]< ====>>>$B%BQBB & Fgdh`hgdmcgdTgd & Fgdmcgdo0 & Fgdmcgd4gd=\I;;;Y<Z<[<]<<<< =|==========[>_>>>>>>>>/@0@b@ĹĹĮĮģģģ}rf[[hmchOJQJhTh5OJQJhh=\IOJQJh5OJQJhh=\I5OJQJhk$5OJQJhOJQJhVhOJQJhwhOJQJhShOJQJhOJQJhmchTOJQJhmch1ROJQJhmOJQJhmcho0OJQJhmch*{OJQJ b@v@@AAAA!B#B$BBBCCCCCCC|DDDEPEEEEEEEEEμμreUhkh2h5CJOJQJaJhk5CJOJQJaJhkhS5CJOJQJaJh7gU5CJOJQJaJhOJQJhmcOJQJh:OJQJhmch:5OJQJhT5OJQJh:5OJQJhmc5OJQJh5OJQJhmchTOJQJh7gUOJQJhmchOJQJhmch:OJQJBCCCCDDEEEEEyFzFG GGGHH I III`KgdZgdVgdSgdgd7 gdT^gd: & FgdEEEQFSFxFzFFFGG6GpGqGwGGGGGGGGGG I I IIIIIIIIIIIJJJJʿʿʴʴ햎ygygygygyg"hZOJQJ^JmH nH sH tH (hZhZOJQJ^JmH nH sH tH hZOJQJhVhDOJQJhkOJQJhVhOJQJhVhVOJQJhwhVOJQJhwOJQJhVOJQJhSOJQJhShOJQJhOJQJhShSOJQJ(JJ J)J.J;JBJHJIJ`KaKKLLLLLL L!L#L$L&LLLWL_L`LaLxLyLzL{L}L~LLLʿ~oobo~^h.vhWMOJQJmHnHujh&h&OJQJUh&h2OJQJh&h&OJQJh^jh^UhShZOJQJhShSOJQJhL7%OJQJhVhL7%OJQJhZhZCJOJQJaJ"hZOJQJ^JmH nH sH tH (hZhZOJQJ^JmH nH sH tH #`KaKLLLLL L"L#L%L&L|L}L~LLL$a$gd&gd7 gdZ,1h/ =!"#$% ^ 02 0@P`p2( 0@P`p 0@P`p 0@P`p 0@P`p 0@P`p 0@P`p8XV~_HmH nH sH tH @`@ NormalCJ_HaJmH sH tH DA`D Default Paragraph FontRiR  Table Normal4 l4a (k (No List 6U@6 =\I Hyperlink >*B*phFVF 1oFollowedHyperlink >*B*ph4@4 &0Header  B#B!B &0 Header CharCJaJmH sH tH 4 24 &Footer  B#BAB & Footer CharCJaJmH sH tH PK![Content_Types].xmlj0Eжr(΢Iw},-j4 wP-t#bΙ{UTU^hd}㨫)*1P' ^W0)T9<l#$yi};~@(Hu* Dנz/0ǰ $ X3aZ,D0j~3߶b~i>3\`?/[G\!-Rk.sԻ..a濭?PK!֧6 _rels/.relsj0 }Q%v/C/}(h"O = C?hv=Ʌ%[xp{۵_Pѣ<1H0ORBdJE4b$q_6LR7`0̞O,En7Lib/SeеPK!kytheme/theme/themeManager.xml M @}w7c(EbˮCAǠҟ7՛K Y, e.|,H,lxɴIsQ}#Ր ֵ+!,^$j=GW)E+& 8PK!Ptheme/theme/theme1.xmlYOo6w toc'vuر-MniP@I}úama[إ4:lЯGRX^6؊>$ !)O^rC$y@/yH*񄴽)޵߻UDb`}"qۋJחX^)I`nEp)liV[]1M<OP6r=zgbIguSebORD۫qu gZo~ٺlAplxpT0+[}`jzAV2Fi@qv֬5\|ʜ̭NleXdsjcs7f W+Ն7`g ȘJj|h(KD- dXiJ؇(x$( :;˹! I_TS 1?E??ZBΪmU/?~xY'y5g&΋/ɋ>GMGeD3Vq%'#q$8K)fw9:ĵ x}rxwr:\TZaG*y8IjbRc|XŻǿI u3KGnD1NIBs RuK>V.EL+M2#'fi ~V vl{u8zH *:(W☕ ~JTe\O*tHGHY}KNP*ݾ˦TѼ9/#A7qZ$*c?qUnwN%Oi4 =3ڗP 1Pm \\9Mؓ2aD];Yt\[x]}Wr|]g- eW )6-rCSj id DЇAΜIqbJ#x꺃 6k#ASh&ʌt(Q%p%m&]caSl=X\P1Mh9MVdDAaVB[݈fJíP|8 քAV^f Hn- "d>znNJ ة>b&2vKyϼD:,AGm\nziÙ.uχYC6OMf3or$5NHT[XF64T,ќM0E)`#5XY`פ;%1U٥m;R>QD DcpU'&LE/pm%]8firS4d 7y\`JnίI R3U~7+׸#m qBiDi*L69mY&iHE=(K&N!V.KeLDĕ{D vEꦚdeNƟe(MN9ߜR6&3(a/DUz<{ˊYȳV)9Z[4^n5!J?Q3eBoCM m<.vpIYfZY_p[=al-Y}Nc͙ŋ4vfavl'SA8|*u{-ߟ0%M07%<ҍPK! ѐ'theme/theme/_rels/themeManager.xml.relsM 0wooӺ&݈Э5 6?$Q ,.aic21h:qm@RN;d`o7gK(M&$R(.1r'JЊT8V"AȻHu}|$b{P8g/]QAsم(#L[PK-![Content_Types].xmlPK-!֧6 +_rels/.relsPK-!kytheme/theme/themeManager.xmlPK-!Ptheme/theme/theme1.xmlPK-! ѐ' theme/theme/_rels/themeManager.xml.relsPK] D | dddddgQ fZ%$*/17;b@EJL')*,-/0245689;<!'S8B`KL(+.137:=DXF^`g!8@0(  B S  ?7A$1DN LReov{sv.&5&U&\&'(,,////{111122q4x45 5m5s5 66&6,636;6B6J6Q6Y68"8P9Z9==>>??h?n??? @@@@0A8AJAPAWA_AfAnAuA}AAAB B.B9BBBCCaChCCCDDDDD D"D#D%D&D4D9D`D{D~DDR U i$!+!,,?2C2`8a8==z>> ?o??@@@AIBUCVCCCC DDDDD D"D#D%D&D~DD333333333333333333:;i|48XZ"!"#"$"?"@",(,,,S0T0113Y4[6_6/808===z>>>??? A A AAAAaCDD&D`D{DD:;i|48XZ"!"#"$"?"@",(,,,S0T0113Y4[6_6/808===z>>>??? A A AAAAaCDDC I7IvY"? =h w(8!2^/VtUD\"HTx&##x2j&m(fcU+[Z-> IJB$zPDDRšgBLW>d.2\*5 \^cA"# gLfl| yy#5zdh ^`hH.h p^p`hH.h @ L^@ `LhH.h ^`hH.h ^`hH.h L^`LhH.h ^`hH.h P^P`hH.h  L^ `LhH.-^`OJQJo(hH-^`OJQJ^Jo(hHo- ^ `OJQJo(hH- ^ `OJQJo(hH-x^x`OJQJ^Jo(hHo-H^H`OJQJo(hH-^`OJQJo(hH-^`OJQJ^Jo(hHo-^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohp^p`OJQJo(hHh@ ^@ `OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohP^P`OJQJo(hHh88^8`OJQJo(hH%h^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh  ^ `OJQJo(hHh  ^ `OJQJo(hHhxx^x`OJQJ^Jo(hHohHH^H`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh^`OJQJo(hHh88^8`OJQJo(hH%h^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh  ^ `OJQJo(hHh  ^ `OJQJo(hHhxx^x`OJQJ^Jo(hHohHH^H`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh^`OJQJo(hH^`OJPJQJ^Jo( e^e`OJQJ^Jo(hHo5^5`OJQJo(hH ^ `OJQJo(hH ^ `OJQJ^Jo(hHo^`OJQJo(hHu^u`OJQJo(hHE^E`OJQJ^Jo(hHo^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohp^p`OJQJo(hHh@ ^@ `OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohP^P`OJQJo(hHGG^G`o(.h^`OJQJo(hH%  L ^ `LhH.   ^ `hH. xx^x`hH. HLH^H`LhH. ^`hH. ^`hH. L^`LhH.h^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohp^p`OJQJo(hHh@ ^@ `OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohP^P`OJQJo(hH8^8`OJPJQJ^Jo(-^`OJQJ^Jo(hHo ^ `OJQJo(hH ^ `OJQJo(hHx^x`OJQJ^Jo(hHoH^H`OJQJo(hH^`OJQJo(hH^`OJQJ^Jo(hHo^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohp^p`OJQJo(hHh@ ^@ `OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohP^P`OJQJo(hH8^8`o() ^`hH.  L^ `LhH.  ^ `hH. x^x`hH. HL^H`LhH. ^`hH. ^`hH. L^`LhH.h^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohp^p`OJQJo(hHh@ ^@ `OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohP^P`OJQJo(hHh ^`hH.h p^p`hH.h @ L^@ `LhH.h ^`hH.h ^`hH.h L^`LhH.h ^`hH.h P^P`hH.h  L^ `LhH.h^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh^`OJQJo(hHhm ^m `OJQJo(hHh=^=`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh ^ `OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh}^}`OJQJo(hHGG^G`o(.h^`OJQJo(hH%  L ^ `LhH.   ^ `hH. xx^x`hH. HLH^H`LhH. ^`hH. ^`hH. L^`LhH.h^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohp^p`OJQJo(hHh@ ^@ `OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohP^P`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohp^p`OJQJo(hHh@ ^@ `OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohP^P`OJQJo(hHh 8^8`hH.h ^`hH.h  L^ `LhH.h  ^ `hH.h x^x`hH.h HL^H`LhH.h ^`hH.h ^`hH.h L^`LhH.h88^8`OJQJo(hH%h^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh  ^ `OJQJo(hHh  ^ `OJQJo(hHhxx^x`OJQJ^Jo(hHohHH^H`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohp^p`OJQJo(hHh@ ^@ `OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohP^P`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohp^p`OJQJo(hHh@ ^@ `OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohP^P`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohp^p`OJQJo(hHh@ ^@ `OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohP^P`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohp^p`OJQJo(hHh@ ^@ `OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHoh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJo(hHh^`OJQJ^Jo(hHohP^P`OJQJo(hHm(&##LflU+ yvY/BLWJB8!7I\"#5zzPUY> = w\^cCZ.2\# gj&DR                           0<"A        0<"A        qX                 X;0<"A                J                 $QV                                   X;0<"A                                  0<"A                                            fES}v |, 3 7 "z 1RG8tf<NGMx3Ep:p$dmcwZGY-!%L7%O&G'x ) ,0o0(1w^1\"2=]3t4C6)7sb9g; +<n>;?U? @G|BD-I=\I!WKWM ^MHOOT7gUSYkYZoR[ _>E_2`? aGaFbohc2d"@dxdEeYe!f^>fQfWgjg2hui%jNUjkYkKl1oxo3stdt.v| w\HxIzz{)|vJ|)}A~S}^"wpd}N^'kz<xU(<>r<;mMSjV4 ^djTB;<T R+(m2 J cRC8*{V?d4ok$HW){$Kd)&8&Mo:+HDLdE^DD@DP@UnknownG* Times New Roman5Symbol3. * Arial7.{ @Calibri=AdvPSMER-R?= * Courier New;WingdingsA BCambria Math"1h{GU+* 9"{* 9"{!24CC 3qHX ?7 2!xx Assignment 1jke18726 reviewer Al                   Oh+'0|  8 D P\dltAssignment 1 jke18726Normal reviewer A85Microsoft Office Word@žKq@G@ .V2* 9՜.+,D՜.+,L hp  Creighton University{"C  Assignment 1 Title 8@ _PID_HLINKSAp'mailto:vinton@creighton.edu  !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrsuvwxyz{}~Root Entry F@z9V21Table?iWordDocument.|SummaryInformation(tDocumentSummaryInformation8|CompObjy  F'Microsoft Office Word 97-2003 Document MSWordDocWord.Document.89q